A policy analysis spotlights how patriarchy operates as a social determinant of health in India — citing sex ratio at birth of 917 girls per 1,000 boys (versus a natural ~950), 60% anaemia among women of reproductive age, MMR of 97 per 100,000 live births (2018-20), 23% of women aged 20-24 married before 18, and 81% of labour rooms lacking decent toilets — arguing women must lead India's health governance.
एक नीति विश्लेषण इस बात पर प्रकाश डालता है कि कैसे पितृसत्ता भारत में स्वास्थ्य के सामाजिक निर्धारक के रूप में काम करती है — जन्म के समय लिंगानुपात 917 लड़कियाँ प्रति 1,000 लड़के (प्राकृतिक ~950 के विरुद्ध), प्रजनन-आयु महिलाओं में 60% रक्ताल्पता, मातृ मृत्यु दर 97 प्रति 1,00,000 जीवित जन्म (2018-20), 20-24 आयु की 23% महिलाएँ 18 से पहले विवाहित, एवं 81% प्रसव कक्षों में सम्मानजनक शौचालय नहीं — तर्क है कि महिलाओं को भारत के स्वास्थ्य शासन का नेतृत्व करना चाहिए।
Why in News
A recent policy analysis of India's healthcare landscape argues that entrenched patriarchal structures continue to undermine gender equity in health outcomes — and that women's leadership in health governance is essential for closing the gap. The analysis treats patriarchy as a social determinant of health, shaping policy framing, facility design, and decision-making at all levels.
Headline data points:
- Sex ratio at birth: 917 girls per 1,000 boys — significantly below the natural genetic baseline of ~950, indicating persistent sex-selective practices
- 60% of women of reproductive age suffer from anaemia
- 40% have sub-optimal Body Mass Index (BMI)
- Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR): 97 per 100,000 live births (2018-20) — declined from earlier highs but still well above SDG 3 target
- 23% of women aged 20-24 were married before 18, leading to high-risk teenage pregnancies
- 81% of labour rooms lack decent toilets, reflecting systemic neglect of women's dignity in healthcare facilities
- State variation: Per recent NFHS data, Gujarat shows higher gender inequality in physical-health status, while Kerala maintains lowest barriers to healthcare access
Why patriarchy is framed as a 'hidden disease': The analysis identifies recurring patterns:
- Reproductive reductionism — health policies often view women only through reproductive roles, neglecting broader health needs
- Cultural recalcitrance to laws prohibiting sex selection (PCPNDT Act 1994)
- Subversion of local power through the 'Panch Pati' practice — where husbands de facto exercise authority of elected woman sarpanches
- Centralisation of health schemes, reducing space for local gender-sensitive design
At a Glance
- Sex ratio at birth
- 917 girls per 1,000 boys (natural baseline ~950)
- Anaemia among women of reproductive age
- Approximately 60%
- Sub-optimal BMI among women
- Approximately 40%
- Maternal Mortality Ratio (2018-20)
- 97 per 100,000 live births
- Early marriage
- 23% of women aged 20-24 married before 18
- Facility-level dignity gap
- 81% of labour rooms lack decent toilets
- Best-performing state on access
- Kerala — lowest barriers (NFHS)
- Higher gender-inequality state
- Gujarat in physical-health status (NFHS)
- Frontline health cadre
- ANMs, ASHAs, Anganwadi workers — almost entirely women, under MoHFW and MoWCD
A recent policy analysis frames patriarchy as a social determinant of health in India and argues for women's leadership in health governance as a structural fix.
Key data points:
- Sex Ratio at Birth (SRB): 917 girls per 1,000 boys in India — compared with the natural genetic baseline of approximately 950 — indicating persistent sex-selective practices
- Anaemia: ~60% of women of reproductive age (15-49) anaemic per NFHS-5
- Body Mass Index (BMI): ~40% of Indian women have sub-optimal BMI (under-nutrition or overweight)
- Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR): 97 per 100,000 live births (2018-20) per Sample Registration System (SRS) — declined from 130 in 2014-16, but still far from the SDG 3.1 target of <70
- Child marriage: 23% of women aged 20-24 married before age 18
- Facility infrastructure: 81% of labour rooms lack decent toilets — a stark dignity-and-hygiene gap
- State-level variation: Kerala lowest barriers to healthcare access; Gujarat higher gender inequality in physical-health status (per NFHS)
Patriarchy's structural pathways into health:
- Reproductive reductionism — women framed primarily as mothers, neglecting non-reproductive health needs
- Cultural recalcitrance undermining laws like the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act, 1994
- Panch Pati system — husbands of elected women sarpanches usurping local-government authority
- Centralisation of health schemes reducing scope for local gender-sensitive nuance
- Facility-level barriers — lack of essential drugs and unavailability of female healthcare providers as most-cited barriers
- Logistical barriers — transport and distance constraining women's access
- Financial dependence — lack of independent bank accounts limiting agency
The frontline cadre — almost entirely women:
- Auxiliary Nurse Midwife (ANM): female health worker at sub-centre level under MoHFW
- Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA): community-level health volunteer under the National Health Mission (NHM); over 10 lakh ASHAs across India
- Anganwadi workers: under the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme administered by the Ministry of Women and Child Development (MoWCD); over 28 lakh Anganwadi centres nationally
- These cadres are predominantly women, but the decision-making layers above them remain male-dominated — reinforcing the governance-leadership gap the analysis flags
Constitutional and legal scaffolding:
- Right to Health has been read into Article 21 (Right to Life) by the Supreme Court (notably Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v State of West Bengal, 1996)
- Article 42 (DPSP) — provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief
- Article 47 — duty of state to raise nutrition levels and standard of living
- PCPNDT Act 1994 prohibits sex selection and pre-natal sex determination
- PWDV Act 2005 — Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act
- Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017 — extended paid maternity leave to 26 weeks
- POSH Act 2013 — Sexual Harassment at the Workplace
Policy schemes targeting women's health:
- Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) — cash incentive for institutional delivery; under NHM
- Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) — maternity benefit cash transfer
- POSHAN Abhiyan (2018) — focus on stunting, undernutrition, anaemia
- Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (2015) — focus on declining child sex ratio
- LaQshya initiative (2017) — labour-room and maternity-OT quality improvement
SDG context: Women's health outcomes connect to SDG 3 (Good Health), SDG 5 (Gender Equality), and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities). India's progress requires not just programme delivery but also gender-aware governance design.
एक हालिया नीति विश्लेषण पितृसत्ता को भारत में स्वास्थ्य के सामाजिक निर्धारक के रूप में रेखांकित करता है एवं संरचनात्मक समाधान के रूप में स्वास्थ्य शासन में महिला नेतृत्व की आवश्यकता पर तर्क देता है।
प्रमुख डेटा बिंदु:
- जन्म के समय लिंगानुपात (SRB): भारत में 917 लड़कियाँ प्रति 1,000 लड़के — प्राकृतिक आधार ~950 के विरुद्ध; लगातार लिंग-चयनात्मक प्रथाएँ इंगित
- रक्ताल्पता: प्रजनन-आयु (15-49) की ~60% महिलाएँ रक्ताल्प (NFHS-5)
- बॉडी मास इंडेक्स (BMI): ~40% महिलाओं का BMI उप-इष्टतम
- मातृ मृत्यु दर (MMR): 97 प्रति 1,00,000 जीवित जन्म (2018-20) SRS के अनुसार; 2014-16 में 130 से गिरी, परंतु SDG 3.1 लक्ष्य <70 से अभी भी दूर
- बाल विवाह: 20-24 आयु की 23% महिलाएँ 18 से पहले विवाहित
- सुविधा अवसंरचना: 81% प्रसव कक्षों में सम्मानजनक शौचालय नहीं
- राज्य भिन्नता: केरल = स्वास्थ्य पहुँच में सबसे कम बाधाएँ; गुजरात = शारीरिक-स्वास्थ्य स्थिति में अधिक लैंगिक असमानता
पितृसत्ता के संरचनात्मक मार्ग:
- प्रजनन न्यूनीकरण — महिलाओं को मुख्यतः माताओं के रूप में देखना
- सांस्कृतिक विरोध PCPNDT अधिनियम, 1994 जैसे क़ानूनों को कमज़ोर कर रहा है
- पंच पति प्रथा — निर्वाचित महिला सरपंचों के पतियों द्वारा वास्तविक प्राधिकार का प्रयोग
- स्वास्थ्य योजनाओं का केंद्रीकरण स्थानीय लैंगिक-संवेदी डिज़ाइन के लिए कम जगह छोड़ता है
अग्रिम पंक्ति का काडर — लगभग पूरी तरह से महिलाएँ:
- सहायक नर्स मिडवाइफ (ANM): उप-केंद्र स्तर पर स्वास्थ्य कार्यकर्ता; MoHFW के तहत
- मान्यता प्राप्त सामाजिक स्वास्थ्य कार्यकर्ता (ASHA): सामुदायिक स्तर; राष्ट्रीय स्वास्थ्य मिशन (NHM) के तहत; 10+ लाख ASHAs
- आँगनवाड़ी कार्यकर्ता: समेकित बाल विकास सेवाएँ (ICDS) के तहत; MoWCD; 28+ लाख आँगनवाड़ी केंद्र
संवैधानिक एवं क़ानूनी ढाँचा:
- स्वास्थ्य का अधिकार = अनुच्छेद 21 का हिस्सा (पश्चिम बंगाल खेत मज़दूर समिति बनाम पश्चिम बंगाल राज्य, 1996)
- अनुच्छेद 42 (DPSP); अनुच्छेद 47; PCPNDT अधिनियम 1994; PWDV अधिनियम 2005; मातृत्व लाभ (संशोधन) अधिनियम 2017 (26 सप्ताह); POSH अधिनियम 2013
नीति योजनाएँ: जननी सुरक्षा योजना (JSY); प्रधानमंत्री मातृ वंदना योजना (PMMVY); पोषण अभियान (2018); बेटी बचाओ बेटी पढ़ाओ (2015); LaQshya पहल (2017)।
SDG संदर्भ: महिला स्वास्थ्य परिणाम SDG 3 + SDG 5 + SDG 10 से जुड़े हैं।
Static GK
- •Sample Registration System (SRS) — MMR data: Census-managed system that produces India's official Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR); 2018-20 figure is 97 per 100,000 live births (down from 130 in 2014-16); SDG 3.1 target is below 70 by 2030
- •PCPNDT Act 1994: Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act 1994; prohibits sex selection before/after conception and prevents misuse of pre-natal diagnostic techniques for sex determination; amended 2003
- •Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): Launched 22 January 2015 from Panipat, Haryana by PM Modi; targets declining Child Sex Ratio (CSR); jointly run by MoWCD, MoHFW, and Ministry of Education
- •POSHAN Abhiyan (National Nutrition Mission): Launched 8 March 2018; aims to reduce stunting, undernutrition, anaemia among children, adolescent girls, pregnant women and lactating mothers; convergence across ministries
- •Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY): Cash-incentive scheme under National Health Mission (NHM); promotes institutional delivery among pregnant women, especially BPL and SC/ST
- •Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY): Maternity benefit cash-transfer scheme; provides ₹5,000 in instalments to pregnant women for first live birth (additional ₹1,000 for second girl child since 2022); under MoWCD
- •LaQshya initiative: Labour Room Quality Improvement Initiative; launched 2017 by MoHFW; aims to improve quality of care in labour rooms and maternity OTs at public health facilities
- •ASHA — Accredited Social Health Activist: Community-level female health volunteer under National Rural Health Mission (later NHM, launched 2005); over 10 lakh ASHAs deployed across India
- •Anganwadi workers and ICDS: Anganwadi workers operate Anganwadi Centres under the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) launched 1975; ICDS provides supplementary nutrition, pre-school education, immunisation, health check-up; under MoWCD
- •Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017: Extended paid maternity leave to 26 weeks for women working in establishments with 10+ employees; mandates creche facility in establishments with 50+ employees
- •POSH Act 2013: Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act 2013; mandates Internal Complaints Committee (ICC) at workplaces with 10+ employees
- •Article 21 and Right to Health: Supreme Court has read the right to health into Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty) — notably Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v State of West Bengal (1996)
- •NFHS — National Family Health Survey: Large-scale nationally representative survey conducted by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare through IIPS Mumbai; NFHS-5 (2019-21) most recent; provides data on health, family welfare, nutrition, and gender
Timeline
- 1975ICDS launched
- 1994PCPNDT Act enacted
- 1996Supreme Court reads Right to Health into Article 21 (Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity)
- 2005National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) launched; ASHAs introduced; PWDV Act 2005 enacted
- 2013POSH Act enacted
- 2015 (22 January)Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) launched
- 2017Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act extends paid leave to 26 weeks; LaQshya launched
- 2018 (8 March)POSHAN Abhiyan launched
- 2018-20MMR for India (SRS): 97 per 100,000 live births
- 2019-21NFHS-5 conducted; data released
- 2026Policy analysis — patriarchy as social determinant of health; women's leadership in health governance
- →Sex Ratio at Birth (SRB) in India: 917 girls/1,000 boys vs natural ~950
- →60% anaemia among women of reproductive age (NFHS-5)
- →40% sub-optimal BMI among Indian women
- →MMR: 97 per 100,000 live births (2018-20) per SRS
- →SDG 3.1 target: MMR <70 by 2030
- →23% of women aged 20-24 married before 18
- →81% of labour rooms lack decent toilets
- →'Panch Pati' = husbands usurping authority of elected women sarpanches
- →Reproductive reductionism = women framed only as mothers
- →Kerala = lowest barriers to healthcare access (NFHS)
- →Gujarat = higher gender inequality in physical-health status (NFHS)
- →ASHAs: 10+ lakh community-level health volunteers under NHM (2005)
- →Anganwadi workers: 28+ lakh under ICDS (1975) — MoWCD
- →PCPNDT Act 1994 — prohibits sex selection
- →Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017 — paid leave extended to 26 weeks
- →POSH Act 2013 — workplace harassment; mandates ICC at 10+ employee workplaces
- →BBBP launched 22 Jan 2015 from Panipat, Haryana
- →POSHAN Abhiyan launched 8 March 2018
- →LaQshya = labour-room quality initiative, launched 2017
Exam Angles
A policy analysis frames patriarchy as a social determinant of health in India — citing sex ratio at birth of 917 girls per 1,000 boys (versus natural ~950), 60% anaemia among women of reproductive age, MMR 97 per 100,000 live births (2018-20), 23% of women aged 20-24 married before 18, 81% of labour rooms lacking decent toilets, and the 'Panch Pati' subversion of elected women sarpanches; argues women must lead India's health governance; legal scaffolding includes PCPNDT Act 1994, PWDV Act 2005, POSH Act 2013, Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017; key schemes: JSY, PMMVY, POSHAN Abhiyan (2018), BBBP (2015), LaQshya (2017).
Q1. The PCPNDT Act 1994 prohibits which practice?
- A.Child marriage
- B.Sex selection and pre-natal sex determination
- C.Domestic violence
- D.Workplace sexual harassment
tap to reveal answer
Answer: B. Sex selection and pre-natal sex determination
The Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994 (PCPNDT) prohibits sex selection before or after conception and the misuse of pre-natal diagnostic techniques for sex determination. Child marriage is addressed by the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006; domestic violence by the PWDV Act 2005; workplace sexual harassment by the POSH Act 2013.
Q2. Under the Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017, paid maternity leave was extended to how many weeks?
- A.12 weeks
- B.26 weeks
- C.52 weeks
- D.8 weeks
tap to reveal answer
Answer: B. 26 weeks
The Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017 extended paid maternity leave from 12 weeks to 26 weeks for women working in establishments with 10 or more employees. The amendment also mandates creche facilities in establishments with 50 or more employees and includes provisions for adoptive and commissioning mothers.
A recent policy analysis frames patriarchy as a social determinant of health in India — arguing that systemic gender inequality shapes outcomes from the Sex Ratio at Birth (917 girls per 1,000 boys vs natural ~950) and high anaemia (~60%) in women of reproductive age, to Maternal Mortality Ratio of 97 per 100,000 (2018-20), 23% child marriage rates among 20-24-year-old women, and the 81% labour-room toilet gap that signals systemic neglect of women's dignity in care facilities. The case for women's leadership in health governance rests on the structural argument that frontline cadres (ANMs, ASHAs, Anganwadi workers) are predominantly women but decision-making layers above them remain male-dominated.
Patriarchy's pathways into health outcomes:
- Reproductive reductionism — viewing women only through reproductive roles
- Cultural recalcitrance that undermines laws like the PCPNDT Act 1994
- Subversion of local power through the 'Panch Pati' practice — husbands exercising the statutory authority of elected women sarpanches under the 73rd Constitutional Amendment 1992
- Centralisation of health schemes that reduces space for gender-sensitive local design
- Facility-level barriers — drug stockouts, female-provider unavailability
- Logistical barriers — geographical distance, lack of safe transport
- Financial dependence — limited independent bank accounts and decision agency
Constitutional and legal framework:
- Article 21 (Right to Life) — Right to Health read into it (Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity, 1996)
- Article 14, 15, 16 (equality and non-discrimination)
- Article 39, 42, 47 (DPSPs on equal-pay, just work conditions, public health)
- PCPNDT Act 1994; PWDV Act 2005; POSH Act 2013; Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017; Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006
Programmatic responses:
- National Health Mission (NHM, 2005) — ASHAs as community-level health workers (10+ lakh deployed)
- ICDS (1975) — Anganwadi workers (28+ lakh centres)
- Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) — institutional-delivery cash incentive
- Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) — ₹5,000 maternity-benefit cash transfer
- POSHAN Abhiyan (2018) — anaemia, stunting, undernutrition
- Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (2015) — declining child sex ratio
- LaQshya (2017) — labour-room quality
Why governance leadership matters: The analysis's structural claim is that women's representation at decision-making layers — health ministries, policy boards, district-level health planning, hospital management committees — is essential because top-down patriarchal frames in health-policy design produce predictable blind spots: facility design that ignores hygiene-and-dignity needs (the 81% toilet gap), schemes that treat women only as reproductive bodies rather than holistic patients, and centralised programmes that miss local-context gender nuances.
SDG and global context: Linked to SDG 3 (Good Health), SDG 5 (Gender Equality), SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities). Comparable global instruments include CEDAW (1979), the Beijing Platform for Action (1995), and the WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health Final Report (2008), which established the framework now applied here.
- Social-determinants framingRecognising patriarchy itself as a determinant — not just an enabling environment — shifts policy levers from health-sector-only to cross-sector
- Frontline-leadership gapANMs, ASHAs, Anganwadi workers (predominantly women) deliver care but rarely shape policy — reform requires elevating these voices
- Constitutional readingArticle 21 + Articles 14/15/16 + DPSPs (39/42/47) provide constitutional anchor for gender-equity-in-health framing
- 73rd Amendment subversionPanch Pati practice undermines panchayati-raj reservation goals; legal but de-facto enforcement weak
- Reproductive reductionismHealth policies historically siloed women into maternal-health frames, neglecting non-reproductive needs (cardiac, mental health, NCDs)
- Centralisation vs local nuanceCentrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) standardisation can override local gender realities
- Facility-design dignity81% labour-room toilet gap shows infrastructure neglect; LaQshya begins to address this
- Sex-selective practices persist despite PCPNDT Act 1994 — enforcement weak
- Anaemia and undernutrition among women remain stubborn despite POSHAN Abhiyan
- Child marriage at 23% of 20-24 year olds despite Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006
- Frontline cadre underpaid — ASHAs are 'volunteers' not regular employees, low remuneration
- Decision-making layers remain male-dominated even as frontline cadre is feminised
- State variation persists — gap between Kerala and Gujarat on access shows uneven progress
- Centralisation of CSS reduces local gender-sensitive design space
- Care-economy and unpaid domestic work — women bear disproportionate burden, limiting health-seeking and labour-market participation
- Strengthen women's representation at decision-making layers — health ministries, policy committees, hospital boards
- Regularise ASHA workers with formal employment status and benefits
- Strengthen PCPNDT enforcement with state-specific Standard Operating Procedures
- Convergence between MoHFW and MoWCD for women-centred health and nutrition design
- Decentralise CSS with state-level gender-sensitivity adaptations
- Invest in facility-level dignity infrastructure — toilets, female providers, privacy
- Track gender-disaggregated health-outcome data via NFHS, SRS, PLFS at sub-state level
- Tackle care economy through investment in childcare, eldercare, and creche infrastructure
- Operationalise SDG 5 cross-sectoral targets through state-level action plans
Mains Q · 250wExamine how patriarchy operates as a social determinant of health in India, and discuss the case for women's leadership in health governance. Suggest measures to address the gap. (250 words)
Intro: A recent policy analysis frames patriarchy as a social determinant of health in India — citing SRB 917 vs natural 950, 60% anaemia, MMR 97/100,000 (2018-20), 23% child marriage, 81% labour-room toilet gap, and arguing that women's leadership in health governance is essential to closing structural gaps.
- Headline indicators: SRB 917, anaemia 60%, BMI sub-optimal 40%, MMR 97 (vs SDG 3.1 <70), child marriage 23%, labour-room toilet gap 81%
- State variation: Kerala lowest barriers, Gujarat higher gender inequality (NFHS)
- Patriarchy's pathways: reproductive reductionism, PCPNDT enforcement weakness, Panch Pati subversion, centralisation, facility-level barriers, financial dependence
- Frontline gap: ANMs, ASHAs (10+ lakh), Anganwadi workers (28+ lakh) are women — but decision layers male-dominated
- Constitutional and legal framework: Article 21 (Right to Health, 1996 SC), DPSPs 39/42/47, PCPNDT 1994, PWDV 2005, POSH 2013, Maternity Benefit (Amendment) 2017
- Programmatic responses: NHM, ICDS, JSY, PMMVY, POSHAN Abhiyan (2018), BBBP (2015), LaQshya (2017)
- Way forward: women's representation in decision layers; ASHA regularisation; PCPNDT enforcement; MoHFW-MoWCD convergence; CSS gender-sensitive adaptation; facility-dignity investment; gender-disaggregated data; care-economy investment; SDG 5 state action plans
Conclusion: Treating patriarchy as a social determinant — rather than merely a backdrop — moves policy from siloed maternal health into cross-sector gender governance. Closing the gap requires not only programmes but governance reform: putting women at the layers where the design decisions are made, not only where they are delivered.
Q1. Which Supreme Court case is the leading authority for reading the Right to Health into Article 21?
- A.Vishaka v State of Rajasthan (1997)
- B.Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v State of West Bengal (1996)
- C.Olga Tellis v Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985)
- D.Indra Sawhney v Union of India (1992)
tap to reveal answer
Answer: B. Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v State of West Bengal (1996)
Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v State of West Bengal (1996) is the leading authority for reading the Right to Health into Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty). The Supreme Court held that the state has an obligation to provide adequate medical facilities. Vishaka (1997) dealt with workplace sexual harassment guidelines (predecessor to the POSH Act 2013). Olga Tellis dealt with the right to livelihood; Indra Sawhney with reservations.
Common Confusions
- Trap · Sex Ratio at Birth (SRB)
Correct: 917 girls per 1,000 boys in India vs natural genetic baseline of approximately 950; SRB measures girls per 1,000 boys at birth; should not be confused with Child Sex Ratio (CSR) for 0-6 years or Overall Sex Ratio
- Trap · MMR cited and source
Correct: 97 per 100,000 live births for 2018-20, per the Sample Registration System (SRS) of the Office of the Registrar General of India; declined from 130 (2014-16); SDG 3.1 target is below 70 by 2030
- Trap · PCPNDT Act year and scope
Correct: 1994 — Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act; amended 2003; prohibits sex selection and misuse of diagnostic techniques for sex determination
- Trap · Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017
Correct: Extended paid leave to 26 weeks (from 12); applies to establishments with 10+ employees; mandates creche at establishments with 50+ employees
- Trap · Right to Health constitutional anchor
Correct: Read into Article 21 by the Supreme Court — leading case Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v State of West Bengal (1996); not Article 14 or Article 47 alone
- Trap · ASHAs and ICDS workers role
Correct: ASHA = Accredited Social Health Activist under NHM (2005) — community-level health volunteer; Anganwadi workers under ICDS (1975) — administered by MoWCD; both predominantly women
- Trap · BBBP launch date
Correct: 22 January 2015 from Panipat, Haryana by PM Modi; jointly run by MoWCD, MoHFW, and Ministry of Education
- Trap · POSHAN Abhiyan launch date
Correct: 8 March 2018 (International Women's Day); aims at reducing stunting, anaemia, and undernutrition among children, adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women
- Trap · POSH Act 2013 ICC threshold
Correct: Internal Complaints Committee (ICC) mandatory at workplaces with 10 or more employees; smaller workplaces are covered by Local Complaints Committees (LCC) at the district level
- Trap · 73rd Amendment and women's representation
Correct: 73rd Constitutional Amendment 1992 introduced one-third reservation for women in panchayati raj institutions; many states have raised this to 50%; the 'Panch Pati' practice undermines this in implementation
- Trap · Best/worst state for women's health access (NFHS)
Correct: Kerala = lowest barriers; Gujarat = higher gender inequality in physical-health status — per NFHS data cited in the analysis